Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid Arthritis 

Introduction

Rheumatoid arthritis, or RA, is an autoimmune and inflammatory disease, which means that your immune system attacks healthy cells in your body by mistake, causing inflammation (painful swelling) in the affected parts of the body.

RA mainly attacks the joints, usually many joints at once. RA commonly affects joints in the hands, wrists, and knees. In a joint with RA, the lining of the joint becomes inflamed, causing damage to joint tissue. This tissue damage can cause long-lasting or chronic pain, unsteadiness (lack of balance), and deformity (misshapenness).

RA can also affect other tissues throughout the body and cause problems in organs such as the lungs, heart, and eyes.

Signs and Symptoms

With RA, there are times when symptoms get worse, known as flares, and times when symptoms get better, known as remission.

Signs and symptoms of RA include:

Pain or aching in more than one joint.

Stiffness in more than one joint.

Tenderness and swelling in more than one joint.

The same symptoms on both sides of the body (such as in both hands or both knees).

Weight loss.

Fever.

Fatigue or tiredness.

Weakness.

Causes

RA is the result of an immune response in which the body’s immune system attacks its own healthy cells. The specific causes of RA are unknown, but some factors can increase the risk of developing the disease.

Risk factors

Researchers have studied a number of genetic and environmental factors to determine if they change person’s risk of developing RA.

Characteristics that increase risk

Age. RA can begin at any age, but the likelihood increases with age. The onset of RA is highest among adults in their sixties.

Sex. New cases of RA are typically two-to-three times higher in women than men.

Genetics/inherited traits. People born with specific genes are more likely to develop RA. These genes, called HLA (human leukocyte antigen) class II genotypes, can also make your arthritis worse. The risk of RA may be highest when people with these genes are exposed to environmental factors like smoking or when a person is obese.

Smoking. Multiple studies show that cigarette smoking increases a person’s risk of developing RA and can make the disease worse.

History of live births. Women who have never given birth may be at greater risk of developing RA.

Early Life Exposures. Some early life exposures may increase risk of developing RA in adulthood. For example, one study found that children whose mothers smoked had double the risk of developing RA as adults. Children of lower income parents are at increased risk of developing RA as adults.

Obesity. Being obese can increase the risk of developing RA. Studies examining the role of obesity also found that the more overweight a person was, the higher his or her risk of developing RA became.

Characteristics that can decrease risk

Unlike the risk factors above which may increase risk of developing RA, at least one characteristic may decrease risk of developing RA.

Breastfeeding. Women who have breastfed their infants have a decreased risk of developing RA.

Diagnosis

RA is diagnosed by reviewing symptoms, conducting a physical examination, and doing X-rays and lab tests. It’s best to diagnose RA early—within 6 months of the onset of symptoms—so that people with the disease can begin treatment to slow or stop disease progression (for example, damage to joints). Diagnosis and effective treatments, particularly treatment to suppress or control inflammation, can help reduce the damaging effects of RA.

Treatment 

RA can be effectively treated and managed with medication(s) and self-management strategies. Treatment for RA usually includes the use of medications that slow disease and prevent joint deformity, called disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs); biological response modifiers (biologicals) are medications that are an effective second-line treatment. In addition to medications, people can manage their RA with self-management strategies proven to reduce pain and disability, allowing them to pursue the activities important to them. People with RA can relieve pain and improve joint function by learning to use five simple and effective arthritis management strategies.

Complications

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) has many physical and social consequences and can lower quality of life. It can cause pain, disability, and premature death.

Premature heart disease. People with RA are also at a higher risk for developing other chronic diseases such as heart disease and diabetes. To prevent people with RA from developing heart disease, treatment of RA also focuses on reducing heart disease risk factors. For example, doctors will advise patients with RA to stop smoking and lose weight.

Obesity. People with RA who are obese have an increased risk of developing heart disease risk factors such as high blood pressure and high cholesterol. Being obese also increases risk of developing chronic conditions such as heart disease and diabetes. Finally, people with RA who are obese experience fewer benefits from their medical treatment compared with those with RA who are not obese.

Employment. RA can make work difficult. Adults with RA are less likely to be employed than those who do not have RA. As the disease gets worse, many people with RA find they cannot do as much as they used to. Work loss among people with RA is highest among people whose jobs are physically demanding. Work loss is lower among those in jobs with few physical demands, or in jobs where they have influence over the job pace and activities.

Manage

RA affects many aspects of daily living including work, leisure and social activities. Fortunately, there are multiple low-cost strategies in the community that are proven to increase quality of life.

Get physically active. Experts recommend that ideally adults be moderately physically active for 150 minutes per week, like walking, swimming, or biking 30 minutes a day for five days a week. You can break these 30 minutes into three separate ten-minute sessions during the day. Regular physical activity can also reduce the risk of developing other chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and depression. Learn more about physical activity for arthritis.

Go to effective physical activity programs. If you are worried about making arthritis worse or unsure how to safely exercise, participation in physical activity programs can help reduce pain and disability related to RA and improve mood and the ability to move. Classes take place at local Ys, parks, and community centers. These classes can help people with RA feel better. Learn more about the proven physical activity programs that CDC recommends.

Join a self-management education class. Participants with arthritis and (including RA) gain confidence in learning how to control their symptoms, how to live well with arthritis, and how arthritis affects their lives. Learn more about the proven self-management education programs that CDC recommends.

Stop Smoking. Cigarette smoking makes the disease worse and can cause other medical problems. Smoking can also make it more difficult to stay physically active, which is an important part of managing RA. Get help to stop smoking by visiting I’m Ready to Quit on CDC’s Tips From Former Smokers website.

Maintain a Healthy Weight. Obesity can cause numerous problems for people with RA and so it’s important to maintain a healthy weight. 

Type 2 Diabetes

Type 2 Diabetes

Introduction 

Type 2 diabetes is a condition that happens because of a problem in the way the body regulates and uses sugar as a fuel. That sugar also is called glucose. This long-term condition results in too much sugar circulating in the blood. Eventually, high blood sugar levels can lead to disorders of the circulatory, nervous and immune systems.

In type 2 diabetes, there are primarily two problems. The pancreas does not produce enough insulin — a hormone that regulates the movement of sugar into the cells. And cells respond poorly to insulin and take in less sugar.

Type 2 diabetes used to be known as adult-onset diabetes, but both type 1 and type 2 diabetes can begin during childhood and adulthood. Type 2 is more common in older adults. But the increase in the number of children with obesity has led to more cases of type 2 diabetes in younger people.

There's no cure for type 2 diabetes. Losing weight, eating well and exercising can help manage the disease. If diet and exercise aren't enough to control blood sugar, diabetes medications or insulin therapy may be recommended.

Symptoms

Symptoms of type 2 diabetes often develop slowly. In fact, you can be living with type 2 diabetes for years and not know it. When symptoms are present, they may include:

Increased thirst.

Frequent urination.

Increased hunger.

Unintended weight loss.

Fatigue.

Blurred vision.

Slow-healing sores.

Frequent infections.

Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet.

Areas of darkened skin, usually in the armpits and neck.

Causes

Type 2 diabetes is mainly the result of two problems:

1.Cells in muscle, fat and the liver become resistant to insulin As a result, the cells don't take in enough sugar.

2.The pancreas can't make enough insulin to keep blood sugar levels within a healthy range.

Exactly why this happens is not known. Being overweight and inactive are key contributing factors.

How insulin works

Insulin is a hormone that comes from the pancreas — a gland located behind and below the stomach. Insulin controls how the body uses sugar in the following ways:

Sugar in the bloodstream triggers the pancreas to release insulin.

Insulin circulates in the bloodstream, enabling sugar to enter the cells.

The amount of sugar in the bloodstream drops.

In response to this drop, the pancreas releases less insulin.

The role of glucose

Glucose — a sugar — is a main source of energy for the cells that make up muscles and other tissues. The use and regulation of glucose includes the following:

Glucose comes from two major sources: food and the liver.

Glucose is absorbed into the bloodstream, where it enters cells with the help of insulin.

The liver stores and makes glucose.

When glucose levels are low, the liver breaks down stored glycogen into glucose to keep the body's glucose level within a healthy range.

In type 2 diabetes, this process doesn't work well. Instead of moving into the cells, sugar builds up in the blood. As blood sugar levels rise, the pancreas releases more insulin. Eventually the cells in the pancreas that make insulin become damaged and can't make enough insulin to meet the body's needs.

Risk factors

Factors that may increase the risk of type 2 diabetes include:

Weight. Being overweight or obese is a main risk.

Fat distribution. Storing fat mainly in the abdomen — rather than the hips and thighs — indicates a greater risk. The risk of type 2 diabetes is higher in men with a waist circumference above 40 inches (101.6 centimeters) and in women with a waist measurement above 35 inches (88.9 centimeters).

Inactivity. The less active a person is, the greater the risk. Physical activity helps control weight, uses up glucose as energy and makes cells more sensitive to insulin.

Family history. An individual's risk of type 2 diabetes increases if a parent or sibling has type 2 diabetes.

Race and ethnicity. Although it's unclear why, people of certain races and ethnicities — including Black, Hispanic, Native American and Asian people, and Pacific Islanders — are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes than white people are.

Blood lipid levels. An increased risk is associated with low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol — the "good" cholesterol — and high levels of triglycerides.

Age. The risk of type 2 diabetes increases with age, especially after age 35.

Prediabetes. Prediabetes is a condition in which the blood sugar level is higher than normal, but not high enough to be classified as diabetes. Left untreated, prediabetes often progresses to type 2 diabetes.

Pregnancy-related risks. The risk of developing type 2 diabetes is higher in people who had gestational diabetes when they were pregnant and in those who gave birth to a baby weighing more than 9 pounds (4 kilograms).

Polycystic ovary syndrome. Having polycystic ovary syndrome — a condition characterized by irregular menstrual periods, excess hair growth and obesity — increases the risk of diabetes.

Complications

Type 2 diabetes affects many major organs, including the heart, blood vessels, nerves, eyes and kidneys. Also, factors that increase the risk of diabetes are risk factors for other serious diseases. Managing diabetes and controlling blood sugar can lower the risk for these complications and other medical conditions, including:

Heart and blood vessel disease. Diabetes is associated with an increased risk of heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure and narrowing of blood vessels, a condition called atherosclerosis.

Nerve damage in limbs. This condition is called neuropathy. High blood sugar over time can damage or destroy nerves. That may result in tingling, numbness, burning, pain or eventual loss of feeling that usually begins at the tips of the toes or fingers and gradually spreads upward.

Other nerve damage. Damage to nerves of the heart can contribute to irregular heart rhythms. Nerve damage in the digestive system can cause problems with nausea, vomiting, diarrhea or constipation. Nerve damage also may cause erectile dysfunction.

Kidney disease. Diabetes may lead to chronic kidney disease or end-stage kidney disease that can't be reversed. That may require dialysis or a kidney transplant.

Eye damage. Diabetes increases the risk of serious eye diseases, such as cataracts and glaucoma, and may damage the blood vessels of the retina, potentially leading to blindness.

Skin conditions. Diabetes may raise the risk of some skin problems, including bacterial and fungal infections.

Slow healing. Left untreated, cuts and blisters can become serious infections, which may heal poorly. Severe damage might require toe, foot or leg amputation.

Hearing impairment. Hearing problems are more common in people with diabetes.

Sleep apnea. Obstructive sleep apnea is common in people living with type 2 diabetes. Obesity may be the main contributing factor to both conditions.

Dementia. Type 2 diabetes seems to increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease and other disorders that cause dementia. Poor control of blood sugar is linked to a more rapid decline in memory and other thinking skills.

Prevention

Healthy lifestyle choices can help prevent type 2 diabetes. If you've received a diagnosis of prediabetes, lifestyle changes may slow or stop the progression to diabetes.

A healthy lifestyle includes:

Eating healthy foods. Choose foods lower in fat and calories and higher in fiber. Focus on fruits, vegetables and whole grains.

Getting active. Aim for 150 or more minutes a week of moderate to vigorous aerobic activity, such as a brisk walk, bicycling, running or swimming.

Losing weight. If you are overweight, losing a modest amount of weight and keeping it off may delay the progression from prediabetes to type 2 diabetes. If you have prediabetes, losing 7% to 10% of your body weight may reduce the risk of diabetes.

Avoiding long stretches of inactivity. Sitting still for long periods of time can increase the risk of type 2 diabetes. Try to get up every 30 minutes and move around for at least a few minutes.

For people with prediabetes, metformin (Fortamet, Glumetza, others), a diabetes medication, may be prescribed to reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. This is usually prescribed for older adults who are obese and unable to lower blood sugar levels with lifestyle changes.

Type 1 Diabetes

Type 1 Diabetes 

Introduction

Type 1 diabetes, once known as juvenile diabetes or insulin-dependent diabetes, is a chronic condition. In this condition, the pancreas makes little or no insulin. Insulin is a hormone the body uses to allow sugar (glucose) to enter cells to produce energy.

Different factors, such as genetics and some viruses, may cause type 1 diabetes. Although type 1 diabetes usually appears during childhood or adolescence, it can develop in adults.

Even after a lot of research, type 1 diabetes has no cure. Treatment is directed toward managing the amount of sugar in the blood using insulin, diet and lifestyle to prevent complications.

Symptoms

Type 1 diabetes symptoms can appear suddenly and may include:

Feeling more thirsty than usual

Urinating a lot

Bed-wetting in children who have never wet the bed during the night

Feeling very hungry

Losing weight without trying

Feeling irritable or having other mood changes

Feeling tired and weak

Having blurry vision

Causes

The exact cause of type 1 diabetes is unknown. Usually, the body's own immune system — which normally fights harmful bacteria and viruses — destroys the insulin-producing (islet) cells in the pancreas. Other possible causes include:

Genetics

Exposure to viruses and other environmental factors

The Role of Insulin

Once a large number of islet cells are destroyed, the body will produce little or no insulin. Insulin is a hormone that comes from a gland behind and below the stomach (pancreas).

The pancreas puts insulin into the bloodstream.

Insulin travels through the body, allowing sugar to enter the cells.

Insulin lowers the amount of sugar in the bloodstream.

As the blood sugar level drops, the pancreas puts less insulin into the bloodstream.

The Role of Glucose

Glucose — a sugar — is a main source of energy for the cells that make up muscles and other tissues.

Glucose comes from two major sources: food and the liver.

Sugar is absorbed into the bloodstream, where it enters cells with the help of insulin.

The liver stores glucose in the form of glycogen.

When glucose levels are low, such as when you haven't eaten in a while, the liver breaks down the stored glycogen into glucose. This keeps glucose levels within a typical range.

In type 1 diabetes, there's no insulin to let glucose into the cells. Because of this, sugar builds up in the bloodstream. This can cause life-threatening complications.

Risc factors 

Some factors that can raise your risk for type 1 diabetes include:

Family history. Anyone with a parent or sibling with type 1 diabetes has a slightly higher risk of developing the condition.

Genetics. Having certain genes increases the risk of developing type 1 diabetes.

Geography. The number of people who have type 1 diabetes tends to be higher as you travel away from the equator.

Age. Type 1 diabetes can appear at any age, but it appears at two noticeable peaks. The first peak occurs in children between 4 and 7 years old. The second is in children between 10 and 14 years old.

Complications

Over time, type 1 diabetes complications can affect major organs in the body. These organs include the heart, blood vessels, nerves, eyes and kidneys. Having a normal blood sugar level can lower the risk of many complications.

Diabetes complications can lead to disabilities or even threaten your life.

Heart and blood vessel disease. Diabetes increases the risk of some problems with the heart and blood vessels. These include coronary artery disease with chest pain (angina), heart attack, stroke, narrowing of the arteries (atherosclerosis) and high blood pressure.

Nerve damage (neuropathy). Too much sugar in the blood can injure the walls of the tiny blood vessels (capillaries) that feed the nerves. This is especially true in the legs. This can cause tingling, numbness, burning or pain. This usually begins at the tips of the toes or fingers and spreads upward. Poorly controlled blood sugar could cause you to lose all sense of feeling in the affected limbs over time.

Damage to the nerves that affect the digestive system can cause problems with nausea, vomiting, diarrhea or constipation. For men, erectile dysfunction may be an issue.

Kidney damage (nephropathy). The kidneys have millions of tiny blood vessels that keep waste from entering the blood. Diabetes can damage this system. Severe damage can lead to kidney failure or end-stage kidney disease that can't be reversed. End-stage kidney disease needs to be treated with mechanical filtering of the kidneys (dialysis) or a kidney transplant.

Eye damage. Diabetes can damage the blood vessels in the retina (part of the eye that senses light) (diabetic retinopathy). This could cause blindness. Diabetes also increases the risk of other serious vision conditions, such as cataracts and glaucoma.

Foot damage. Nerve damage in the feet or poor blood flow to the feet increases the risk of some foot complications. Left untreated, cuts and blisters can become serious infections. These infections may need to be treated with toe, foot or leg removal (amputation).

Skin and mouth conditions. Diabetes may leave you more prone to infections of the skin and mouth. These include bacterial and fungal infections. Gum disease and dry mouth also are more likely.

Pregnancy complications. High blood sugar levels can be dangerous for both the parent and the baby. The risk of miscarriage, stillbirth and birth defects increases when diabetes isn't well-controlled. For the parent, diabetes increases the risk of diabetic ketoacidosis, diabetic eye problems (retinopathy), pregnancy-induced high blood pressure and preeclampsia.

Prevention

There's no known way to prevent type 1 diabetes. But researchers are working on preventing the disease or further damage of the islet cells in people who are newly diagnosed.

Ask your provider if you might be eligible for one of these clinical trials. It is important to carefully weigh the risks and benefits of any treatment available in a trial.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD)

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) 

Introduction

Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), or sexually transmitted infections (STIs), are infections that are passed from one person to another through sexual contact. They are usually spread during vaginal, oral, or anal sex. But sometimes they can spread through other sexual contact involving the penis, vagina, mouth, or anus. This is because some STDs, like herpes and HPV, are spread by skin-to-skin contact.

Some STDs can be passed from a pregnant person to the baby, either during pregnancy or when giving birth. Other ways that STDs may be spread include during breastfeeding, through blood transfusions, or by sharing needles.

There are more than 20 types of STDs, including:

Chlamydia

Genital herpes

Gonorrhea

HIV

HPV

Pubic lice

Syphilis

Trichomoniasis

Causes 

STDs can be caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites.

Most Suspected Persons

Most STDs affect both men and women, but in many cases the health problems they cause can be more severe for women. If an STD is passed to a baby, it can cause serious health problems.

Common Symptoms 

STDs don't always cause symptoms or may only cause mild symptoms. So it is possible to have an infection and not know it. And even without symptoms, STDs can still be harmful and may be passed on during sex.

If there are symptoms, they could include:

Unusual discharge from the penis or vagina.

Sores or warts on the genital area.

Painful or frequent urination (peeing).

Itching and redness in the genital area.

Blisters or sores in or around the mouth.

Abnormal vaginal odor.

Anal itching, soreness, or bleeding.

Abdominal painn.

Fever.

Diagnosis 

If you are sexually active, you should talk to your health care provider about your risk for STDs and whether you need to be tested. This is especially important since many STDs do not usually cause symptoms.

Some STDs may be diagnosed during a physical exam or through microscopic examination of a sore or fluid swabbed from the vagina, penis, or anus. Blood tests can diagnose other types of STDs.

Treatments

Antibiotics can treat STDs caused by bacteria or parasites. There is no cure for STDs caused by viruses, but medicines can often help with the symptoms and lower your risk of spreading the infection.

Correct usage of latex condoms greatly reduces, but does not completely eliminate, the risk of catching or spreading STDs. The most reliable way to avoid infection is to not have anal, vaginal, or oral sex.

There are vaccines to prevent HPV and hepatitis B

Prevention

Correct usage of latex condoms greatly reduces, but does not completely eliminate, the risk of catching or spreading STDs. If your or your partner is allergic to latex, you can use polyurethane condoms. The most reliable way to avoid infection is to not have anal, vaginal, or oral sex.

There are vaccines to prevent HPV and hepatitis B

Autoimmune Diseases

Autoimmune Disease 

Introduction

Autoimmune diseases are conditions in which your immune system mistakenly damages healthy cells in your body. Types include rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn’s disease, and some thyroid conditions.

Your immune system usually protects you from diseases and infections. When it senses these pathogens, it creates specific cells to target foreign cells.

Usually, your immune system can tell the difference between foreign cells and your cells.

But if you have an autoimmune disease, your immune system mistakes parts of your body, such as your joints or skin, as foreign. It releases proteins called autoantibodies that attack healthy cells.

Some autoimmune diseases target only one organ. Type 1 diabetes damages your pancreas. Other conditions, such as systemic lupus erythematosus, or lupus, can affect your whole body.

Below we provide an overview of some of the most common autoimmune diseases.

Causes

Doctors don’t know exactly what causes the immune system to misfire. Yet some people are more likely to get an autoimmune disease than others.

Some factors that may increaseTrusted Source your risk of developing an autoimmune disease can include:

Your sex: People assigned female at birth between the age of 15 and 44 are more likely to get an autoimmune disease than people assigned male at birth.

Your family history: You may be more likely to develop autoimmune diseases due to inherited genes, though environmental factors may also contribute.

Environmental factors: Exposure to sunlight, mercury, chemicals like solvents or those used in agriculture, cigarette smoke, or certain bacterial and viral infections, including COVID-19Trusted Source, may increase your risk of autoimmune disease.

Ethnicity: Some autoimmune diseases are more common in people in certain groups. For example, White people from Europe and the United States may be more likely to develop autoimmune muscle disease, while lupus tends to occur more in people who are African American, Hispanic, or Latino.

Nutrition: Your diet and nutrients may impact the risk and severity of autoimmune disease.

Other health conditions: Certain health conditions, including obesity and other autoimmune diseases, may make you more likely to develop an autoimmune disease.

Common symptoms

Different autoimmune diseases may have similar early symptoms. These can include:

Fatigue

Dizziness or lightheadedness

Low grade fever

Muscle aches

Swelling

Trouble concentrating

Numbness and tingling in your hands and feet

Hair loss

Skin rash

With some autoimmune diseases, including psoriasis or rheumatoid arthritis (RA), symptoms may come and go. A period of symptoms is called a flare up. A period when the symptoms go away is called remission.

Individual autoimmune diseases can also have their own unique symptoms depending on the body systems affected. For example, with type 1 diabetes, you may experience extreme thirst and weight loss. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) may cause bloating and diarrhea.

Most common Autoimmune Diseases

Researchers have identified more than 100 autoimmune diseases. Here are 14 more common ones.

1. Type 1 Diabetes

Your pancreas produces the hormone insulin, which helps regulate blood sugar levels. In type 1 diabetes, the immune system destroys insulin-producing cells in your pancreas.

High blood sugar from type 1 diabetes can damage the blood vessels and organs. This can include your:

Heart

Kidneys

Eyes

Nerves

2. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)

In RA, your immune system attacks the joints. This causes symptoms affecting the joints such as:

Swelling

Warmth

Soreness

Stiffness

While RA more commonlyTrusted Source affects people as they get older, it can also start as early as your 30s. A related condition, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, can start in childhood.

3. Psoriasis/Psoriatic arthritis

Skin cells grow and then shed when they’re no longer needed. Psoriasis causes skin cells to multiply too quickly. The extra cells build up and form inflamed patches. On lighter skin tones, patches may appear red with silver-white scales of plaque. On darker skin tones, psoriasis may appear purplish or dark brown with gray scales.

Up to 30%Trusted Source of people with psoriasis also develop psoriatic arthritis. This can cause joint symptoms that include:

Swelling

Stiffness

Pain

4. Multiple sclerosis 

Multiple sclerosis (MS) damages the protective coating surrounding nerve cells (myelin sheath) in your central nervous system. Damage to the myelin sheath slows the transmission speed of messages between your brain and spinal cord to and from the rest of your body.

This damage can lead to:

Numbness

Weakness

Balance issues

Trouble walking

Different forms of MS progress at different rates. Difficulties with walking are one of the most common mobility issues with MS.

5. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)

Although doctors in the 1800s first described lupus as a skin disease because of the rash it commonly produces, the systemic form, which is most common, actually affects many organs. This can include your:

Joints

Kidneys

Brain

Heart

Common symptoms can include:

Joint pain

Fatigue

Rashes

6. Inflammatory bowel disease

IBD describes conditions that cause inflammation in the lining of the intestinal wall. Each type of IBD affects a different part of your gastrointestinal (GI) tract.

Crohn’s disease can inflame any part of your GI tract, from the mouth to the anus.

Ulcerative colitis affects the lining of the large intestine (colon) and rectum.

Common symptoms of IBD can include:

Diarrhea

Abdominal pain

Bleeding ulcers

7. Addison’s disease

Addison’s disease affects the adrenal glands, which produce the hormones cortisol and aldosterone as well as androgen hormones. Too little cortisol can affect how your body uses and stores carbohydrates and sugar (glucose). Too little aldosterone can lead to sodium loss and excess potassium in your bloodstream.

Common symptoms of Addison’s disease can include:

Weakness

Fatigue

Weight loss

Low blood sugar

8. Graves’ disease

Graves’ disease attacks the thyroid gland in your neck, causing it to produce too much of its hormones. Thyroid hormones control the body’s energy usage, known as metabolism.

Having too much of these hormones revs up your body’s activities, causing symptoms that may include:

Rapid heart rate (tachycardia)

Heat intolerance

Unintentional weight loss

Swelling of the thyroid gland (goiter)

Some people with Graves’ disease may also experience symptoms affecting the skin (Graves’ dermopathy) or eyes (Graves’ ophthalmopathy).

9. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis

In Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, thyroid hormone production slows to a deficiency. Common symptoms of Hashimoto’s thyroiditis can include:

Weight gain

Sensitivity to cold

Fatigue

Hair loss

Swelling of the thyroid (goiter)

10. Pernicious anemia

Pernicious anemia may happen when an autoimmune disorder causes your body to not produce enough of a substance called intrinsic factor. Having a deficiency in this substance reduces the amount of vitamin B12 your small intestine absorbs from food. It can cause a low red blood cell count.

Without enough of this vitamin, you’ll develop anemia, and your body’s ability for proper DNA synthesis will be altered.

It can cause symptoms that include:

Fatigue

Weakness

Headaches

This rare autoimmune disease typically occurs in people ages 60 to 70 Trusted Source and older.

Human - Nasal Cavity

Human - Nasal Cavity 

Introduction

Your nose is part of your respiratory system. It allows air to enter your body, then filters debris and warms and moistens the air. Your nose gives you a sense of smell and helps shape your appearance. Many common symptoms affect your nose, such as a stuffy nose and nosebleed. Other symptoms may need treatment to keep your nose functioning well.

Your nose, a structure that sticks out from the middle of your face, is part of your respiratory system.

Anatomy

Your nose anatomy includes:

Bone: The hard bridge at the top of your nose is made of bone.

Hair and cilia: Hair and cilia (tiny, hairlike structures) inside your nose trap dirt and particles. Then they move those particles toward your nostrils, where they can be sneezed out or wiped away.

Lateral walls (outer walls): The outer walls of your nose are made of cartilage and covered in skin. The walls form your nasal cavities and your nostrils.

Nasal cavities: Your nose has two nasal cavities, hollow spaces where air flows in and out. They are lined with mucous membranes.

Nerve cells: These cells communicate with your brain to provide a sense of smell.

Nostrils (nares): These are the openings to the nasal cavities that are on the face.

Septum: The septum is made of bone and firm cartilage. It runs down the center of your nose and separates the two nasal cavities.

Sinuses: You have four pairs of sinuses. These air-filled pockets are connected to your nasal cavities. They produce the mucus that keeps your nose moist.

Turbinates (conchae): There are three pairs of turbinates located along the sides of both nasal cavities. These folds inside your nose help warm and moisten air after you breathe it in and help with nasal drainage.

Conditions and Disorders

Health conditions that can affect your nose include:

Allergic rhinitis: Allergic rhinitis (hay fever) can cause irritation, sneezing, runny nose or stuffy nose.

Deviated septum: A deviated septum occurs when your septum is off-center, either at birth or from injury. It can cause breathing problems, nasal congestion and headaches.

Enlarged turbinates: Allergens and irritants can make the turbinates swell, which can block airflow and affect normal breathing.

Injury or trauma: Your nose can be broken or injured, similar to any other external part of your body.

Infection: An infection can cause many of the same symptoms as allergic rhinitis. Examples include sinus infections and the common cold.

Nasopharyngeal cancer: Your nose can be the site of head and neck cancer.

Nasal polyps: Nasal polyps are bumps that can block airflow or prevent your nose from filtering air.

Nasal valve collapse: Often caused by an accident or trauma to your nose, nasal valve collapse is the most common cause of nasal obstruction.

Nosebleed (epistaxis): Nosebleeds occur when a blood vessel in your nose breaks. They are common, and most aren’t serious.

Function

Your nose is involved in several important bodily functions:

Allows air to enter your body.

Contributes to how you look and how you sound when you speak.

Filters and cleans air to remove particles and allergens.

Provides a sense of smell.

Warms and moistens air so it can move comfortably into your respiratory system.

Your nose is also a prominent aspect of your facial appearance and your sense of well-being.

Care

Avoid smoking or breathing in secondhand smoke.

Don’t remove nose hairs, or do it carefully, because they filter dirt and debris.

Drink plenty of water.

Keep your home clean to reduce the amount of dust and other allergens you may breathe in. Wash your bedsheets to remove dust.

Squirt saline into the nasal cavities to keep them clean and moist.

Use a humidifier at home to keep the air moist.

Hot Flashes

Hot Flashes 

Introduction

A hot flash is the sudden feeling of warmth in the upper body, which is usually most intense over the face, neck and chest. Your skin might redden, as if you're blushing. A hot flash can also cause sweating. If you lose too much body heat, you might feel chilled afterward. Night sweats are hot flashes that happen at night, and they may disrupt your sleep.

Although other medical conditions can cause them, hot flashes most commonly are due to menopause — the time when menstrual periods become irregular and eventually stop. In fact, hot flashes are the most common symptom of the menopausal transition.

There are a variety of treatments for bothersome hot flashes.

Symptoms

During a hot flash, you might have:

A sudden feeling of warmth spreading through your chest, neck and face.

A flushed appearance with red, blotchy skin.

Rapid heartbeat.

Perspiration, mostly on your upper body.

A chilled feeling as the hot flash lets up.

Feelings of anxiety.

The frequency and intensity of hot flashes vary among women. A single episode may last a minute or two — or as long as 5 minutes.

Hot flashes may be mild or so intense that they disrupt daily activities. They can happen at any time of day or night. Nighttime hot flashes (night sweats) may wake you from sleep and can cause long-term sleep disruptions.

How often hot flashes occur varies among women, but most women who report having hot flashes experience them daily. On average, hot flash symptoms persist for more than seven years. Some women have them for more than 10 years.

Causes

Hot flashes are most commonly caused by changing hormone levels before, during and after menopause. It's not clear exactly how hormonal changes cause hot flashes. But most research suggests that hot flashes occur when decreased estrogen levels cause your body's thermostat (hypothalamus) to become more sensitive to slight changes in body temperature. When the hypothalamus thinks your body is too warm, it starts a chain of events — a hot flash — to cool you down.

Rarely, hot flashes and nights sweats are caused by something other than menopause. Other potential causes include medication side effects, problems with your thyroid, certain cancers and side effects of cancer treatment.

Risk factors

Not all women who go through menopause have hot flashes, and it's not clear why some women do have them. Factors that may increase your risk include:

Smoking. Women who smoke are more likely to get hot flashes.

Obesity. A high body mass index (BMI) is associated with a higher frequency of hot flashes.

Race. More black women report having hot flashes during menopause than do women of other races. Hot flashes are reported least frequently in Asian women.

Complications

Hot flashes may impact your daily activities and quality of life. Nighttime hot flashes (night sweats) can wake you from sleep and, over time, can cause long-term sleep disruptions.

Research suggests that women who have hot flashes may have an increased risk of heart disease and greater bone loss than women who do not have hot flashes.

Menopause

Menopause 

Introduction

Menopause is a point in time when a person has gone 12 consecutive months without a menstrual period. Menopause is a natural part of aging and marks the end of your reproductive years. On average, menopause happens at age 51.

Menopause is a point in time when you’ve gone 12 consecutive months without a menstrual cycle. The time leading up to menopause is called perimenopause. This is when a lot of women or people assigned female at birth (AFAB) start to transition to menopause. They may notice changes in their menstrual cycles or have symptoms like hot flashes.

Identification 

You’ll know you’ve reached menopause when you’ve gone 12 consecutive months without a menstrual period. Contact your healthcare provider if you have any type of vaginal bleeding after menopause. Vaginal bleeding after menopause could be a sign of a more serious health issue.

Three Phases

Natural menopause is the permanent ending of menstruation that doesn’t happen because of any type of medical treatment. The process is gradual and happens in three stages:

Perimenopause or “menopause transition”: Perimenopause can begin eight to 10 years before menopause when your ovaries gradually produce less estrogen. It usually starts when you’re in your 40s. Perimenopause lasts up until menopause, the point when your ovaries stop releasing eggs. In the last one to two years of perimenopause, the drop in estrogen accelerates. At this stage, many people may experience menopause symptoms. But, you’re still having menstrual cycles during this time and can get pregnant.

Menopause: Menopause is the point when you no longer have menstrual periods. At this stage, your ovaries have stopped releasing eggs and stopped producing most of their estrogen. A healthcare provider diagnoses menopause when you’ve gone without a menstrual period for 12 consecutive months.

Postmenopause: This is the name given to the time after you haven’t had a period for an entire year (or the rest of your life after menopause). During this stage, menopausal symptoms, such as hot flashes, may get better. However, some people continue to experience menopausal symptoms for a decade or longer after the menopause transition. As a result of a lower estrogen level, people in the postmenopausal phase are at an increased risk for several health conditions, such as osteoporosis and heart disease.

Normal age for Menopause

The average age of menopause in the United States is approximately 51 years old. However, the transition to menopause usually begins in your mid-40s.

Menopause

When menopause happens on its own (natural menopause), it’s a normal part of aging. Menopause is defined as a complete year without menstrual bleeding, in the absence of any surgery or medical condition that may cause bleeding to stop such as hormonal birth control, radiation therapy or surgical removal of your ovaries.

As you age, your reproductive cycle begins to slow down and prepares to stop. This cycle has been continuously functioning since puberty. As menopause nears, your ovaries make less of a hormone called estrogen. When this decrease occurs, your menstrual cycle (period) starts to change. It can become irregular and then stop.

Physical changes can also happen as your body adapts to different levels of hormones. The symptoms you experience during each stage of menopause (perimenopause, menopause and postmenopause) are all part of your body’s adjustment to these changes.

Hormonal changes

The traditional changes we think of as “menopause” happen when your ovaries no longer produce high levels of hormones. Your ovaries are the reproductive glands that store and release eggs. They also produce the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Together, estrogen and progesterone control menstruation. Estrogen also influences how your body uses calcium and maintains cholesterol levels in your blood.

As menopause nears, your ovaries no longer release eggs, and you’ll have your last menstrual cycle.

Symptoms and Causes

You may be transitioning into menopause if you begin experiencing some or all of the following symptoms:

Hot flashes, also known as vasomotor symptoms (a sudden feeling of warmth that spreads over your body).

Night sweats and/or cold flashes.

Hot Flashes

Vaginal dryness that causes discomfort during sex.

Urinary urgency (a pressing need to pee more frequently).

Difficulty sleeping (insomnia).

Emotional changes (irritability, mood swings or mild depression).

Dry skin, dry eyes or dry mouth.

Breast tenderness.

Worsening of premenstrual syndrome (PMS).

Irregular periods or periods that are heavier or lighter than usual.

Some people might also experience:

Racing heart.

Headaches.

Joint and muscle aches and pains.

Changes in libido (sex drive).

Difficulty concentrating or memory lapses (often temporary).

Weight gain.

Hair loss or thinning.

Changes in your hormone levels cause these symptoms. Some people may have intense symptoms of menopause, while others have mild symptoms. Not everyone will have the same symptoms as they transition to menopause.

Contact a healthcare provider if you’re unsure if your symptoms are related to menopause or another health condition.

Diagnosis and Tests

There are several ways your healthcare provider can diagnose menopause. The first is discussing your menstrual cycle over the last year. Menopause is unique in that your provider diagnoses it after it occurs. If you’ve gone a full year (12 straight months) without a period, you’ve entered menopause and may be postmenopausal.

Management and Treatment

Menopause is a natural process that your body goes through. In some cases, you may not need any treatment for menopause. When discussing treatment for menopause with your provider, it’s about treating the symptoms of menopause that disrupt your life. There are many different types of treatments for the symptoms of menopause. The main types of treatment for menopause are:

1. Hormone therapy.

2. Nonhormonal treatments.

It’s important to talk to your healthcare provider while you’re going through menopause to craft a treatment plan that works for you. Every person is different and has unique needs.

Hormone Therapy

During menopause, your body goes through major hormonal changes — decreasing the amount of hormones it makes. Your ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone. When your ovaries no longer make enough estrogen and progesterone, hormone therapy can make up for lost hormones. Hormone therapy boosts your hormone levels and can help symptoms like hot flashes and vaginal dryness. It can also help prevent osteoporosis.

There are two main types of hormone therapy:

Estrogen therapy (ET): In this treatment, you take estrogen alone. Your provider prescribes it in a low dose. Estrogen comes in many forms, such as a patch, pill, cream, vaginal ring, gel or spray. Estrogen therapy isn’t a good treatment for you if you still have a uterus.

Estrogen Progesterone/Progestin Hormone Therapy (EPT): This treatment is also called combination therapy because it uses doses of estrogen and progesterone. Progesterone is available in its natural form, or also as a progestin (a synthetic form of progesterone). This type of hormone therapy is for people who still have their uterus.

Risks to hormone therapy

The health risks of hormone therapy include:

Endometrial cancer (only increased if you use estrogen therapy and still have your uterus).

Gallstones and gallbladder issues.

Blood clots.

Deep vein thrombosis.

Pulmonary embolism.

Stroke.

These risks are lower if you start hormone therapy within 10 years of menopause. After that point, your risk for cardiovascular diseases is higher.

A correlation exists between severe hot flashes and night sweats and your risk for cardiovascular disease. Healthcare providers may suggest starting hormone therapy if you have these severe symptoms since it’s an indicator for future cardiovascular risk.

Going on hormone therapy is an individualized decision. Discuss all past medical conditions and your family history with your healthcare provider to understand the risks versus benefits of hormone therapy.

Non-hormonal therapies

Though hormone therapy is a very effective method for relieving menopause symptoms, it’s not the perfect treatment for everyone. Nonhormonal treatments include changes to your diet and lifestyle. These treatments are often good options for people who have other medical conditions or have recently been treated for breast cancer. The main nonhormonal treatments that your provider may recommend include:

Changing your diet.

Avoiding triggers to hot flashes.

Exercising.

Joining support groups.

Prescription medications.

Diet

Sometimes changing your diet can help relieve menopause symptoms. Limiting the amount of caffeine you consume every day and cutting back on spicy foods can make your hot flashes less severe. You can also add foods that contain plant estrogen into your diet. Plant estrogen (isoflavones) isn’t a replacement for the estrogen your body makes before menopause. Foods to try include:

Soybeans.

Chickpeas.

Lentils.

Flaxseed.

Grains.

Beans.

Fruits.

Vegetables.

Avoiding triggers to hot flashes

Certain things in your daily life could be triggers for hot flashes. To help relieve your symptoms, try and identify these triggers and work around them. This could include keeping your bedroom cool at night, wearing layers of clothing or quitting smoking. Weight loss can also help with hot flashes.

Exercising

Working out can be difficult if you’re dealing with hot flashes, but exercising can help relieve several other symptoms of menopause. Exercise can help you sleep through the night and is recommended if you have insomnia. Calm, tranquil types of exercise like yoga can also help with your mood and relieve any fears or anxiety you may be feeling.

Joining support groups

Talking to other people who are also going through menopause can be a great relief for many. Joining a support group can not only give you an outlet for the many emotions running through your head, but also help you answer questions you may not even know you have.

Prescription medications

Prescription medications such as estrogen therapy (estrogen in a cream, gel or pill), birth control pills and antidepressants (SSRIs and SNRIs) can help manage symptoms of menopause like mood swings and hot flashes. Prescription vaginal creams can help relieve vaginal dryness. A seizure medication called gabapentin has been shown to relieve hot flashes. Speak with your healthcare provider to see if nonhormonal medications could work for managing your symptoms.

Psychology of Menopause

Psychology of Menopause

Psychology of Menopause 

Introduction

The years leading up to menopause and the transition itself can bring changes to your body. But they can also have an effect on your mind, specifically your mental health.

The incidence of depression doubles during this time. Women who have struggled in the past with depression or anxiety might also see a resurgence in symptoms.

Shifts in the levels of female hormones can cause mood changes at other stages of life, so it's not necessarily surprising that they can have some effect on mood during the menopausal transition as well, says Dr. Hadine Joffe, the Paula A. Johnson Associate Professor of Psychiatry in Women's Health at Harvard Medical School and executive director of the Connors Center for Women's Health and Gender Biology at Brigham and Women's Hospital. 

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (which is a more severe form of premenstrual syndrome, affecting mood) and postpartum depression are other examples of conditions that are driven by hormonal changes inside the body — in these cases, before menstruation or after childbirth.

"These disorders aren't 100% hormone-based," says Dr. Joffe, but female hormones play a major role.

Mood shifts during perimenopause and at menopause are most often mild. "Milder depressive symptoms have clearly been linked with hormone changes," says Dr. Joffe. For example, Joffe was the lead author of a 2019 study in The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism that linked an increase in depression symptoms at perimenopause with fluctuations of two hormones, progesterone and estradiol (the most potent form of estrogen). But when it comes to major depression (the more severe form of clinical depression), the link to female hormone changes is not clear.

The vast majority of women who develop significant mood issues during perimenopause have had them in the past. It's relatively rare for someone with no history of depression or anxiety to suddenly develop a severe case of it at menopause, says Dr. Joffe. In addition, midlife — when menopause occurs — is a time when women sometimes face multiple sources of stress, including caring for children, dealing with aging parents, and navigating life changes, all of which may contribute to the incidence of depression and anxiety at this age.

Anxiety and menopause

While research has clearly linked menopause and depression, the connection is less clear when it comes to anxiety. "We know a lot less about anxiety in menopause," says Dr. Joffe. There is some evidence that women are more likely to experience panic attacks during and after the menopausal transition, she says. (A panic attack is marked by a sudden sense of extreme anxiety, accompanied by symptoms such as sweating, trembling, shortness of breath, or harmless heart rhythm disturbances called palpitations.)

But this apparent connection may reflect the difficulty distinguishing between panic attacks and a common menopausal symptom, hot flashes. These can be similar, says Dr. Joffe. During a panic attack, your heart may race and you may feel sweaty and hot. The same is true of hot flashes. Before a hot flash, some women experience an "aura," which is term doctors use to describe a sensation preceding a brain condition (such as migraine). For these women, the hot flash is preceded by a panicky feeling or a sense of doom. One way to distinguish between hot flashes and panic attacks is that hot flashes don't make you feel short of breath, while panic attacks may, says Dr. Joffe.

Health changes and mood disturbances

Changes in your physical health at the time of menopause may also drive mood changes. For example, anxiety may be triggered by an overactive thyroid gland, which becomes more common with age. In addition, anxiety and depression may be triggered by a lack of sleep, which also becomes more common at the time of menopause, as hormone shifts cause nighttime hot flashes or other sleep disruptions that make it more difficult for women to get the rest they need.

So, what can you do to protect your mental health as you go through menopause?

Be aware that mood changes may accompany other menopausal symptoms.

Monitor your mood and make note of patterns in other factors such as sleep and stress levels. Seek professional help if symptoms become severe and interfere with daily life.

Make lifestyle changes such as increasing exercise, getting adequate sleep, and controlling stress to reduce potential symptoms.

Reach out to others. Don't struggle alone.

Know that it's temporary. Typically, the mood changes that accompany female hormonal changes during the menopausal transition won't last. "Data show that these hormone-related risks ease with increasing time after menopause," says Dr. Joffe. People who opt to treat their condition using antidepressants or other methods won't necessarily have to continue treatment forever, potentially just through this time period, she says. "I see a lot of women who are really fearful that they are descending into a dismal aging experience," says Dr. Joffe. This is not the case, and help is available.

Human - Female Reproductive System

Human - Female Reproductive System 

Introduction

The female reproductive system consists of internal and external organs. It creates hormones and is responsible for fertility, menstruation and sexual activity.

The female reproductive system is the body parts that help women or people assigned female at birth (AFAB):

Have sexual intercourse.

Reproduce.

Menstruate.

Anatomy

The female reproductive anatomy includes both external and internal parts.

External parts

The function of your external genitals are to protect the internal parts from infection and allow sperm to enter your vagina.

Your vulva is the collective name for all your external genitals. A lot of people mistakenly use the term “vagina” to describe all female reproductive parts. However, your vagina is its own structure located inside your body.

The main parts of your vulva or external genitals are:

Labia majora: Your labia majora (“large lips”) enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs. During puberty, hair growth occurs on the skin of the labia majora, which also contain sweat and oil-secreting glands.

Labia minora: Your labia minora (“small lips”) can have a variety of sizes and shapes. They lie just inside your labia majora, and surround the opening to your vagina (the canal that joins the lower part of your uterus to the outside of your body) and urethra (the tube that carries pee from your bladder to the outside of your body). This skin is very delicate and can become easily irritated and swollen.

Clitoris: Your two labia minora meet at your clitoris, a small, sensitive protrusion that’s comparable to a penis in men or people assigned male at birth (AMAB). Your clitoris is covered by a fold of skin called the prepuce and is very sensitive to stimulation.

Vaginal opening: Your vaginal opening allows menstrual blood and babies to exit your body. Tampons, fingers, sex toys or penises can go inside your vagina through your vaginal opening.

Hymen: Your hymen is a piece of tissue covering or surrounding part of your vaginal opening. It’s formed during development and present during birth.

Opening to your urethra: The opening to your urethra is the hole you pee from.

Internal parts

Vagina: Your vagina is a muscular canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside of the body. It can widen to accommodate a baby during delivery and then shrink back to hold something narrow like a tampon. It’s lined with mucous membranes that help keep it moist.

Cervix: Your cervix is the lowest part of your uterus. A hole in the middle allows sperm to enter and menstrual blood to exit. Your cervix opens (dilates) to allow a baby to come out during a vaginal childbirth. Your cervix is what prevents things like tampons from getting lost inside your body.

Uterus: Your uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that holds a fetus during pregnancy. Your uterus is divided into two parts: the cervix and the corpus. Your corpus is the larger part of your uterus that expands during pregnancy.

Ovaries: Ovaries are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of your uterus. Your ovaries produce eggs and hormones.

Fallopian tubes: These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of your uterus and serve as pathways for your egg (ovum) to travel from your ovaries to your uterus. Fertilization of an egg by sperm normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants into your uterine lining.

Functions

The female reproductive system provides several functions. In addition to allowing a person to have sexual intercourse, it also helps a person reproduce.

Your ovaries produce eggs. These eggs are then transported to your fallopian tube during ovulation where fertilization by a sperm may occur. The fertilized egg then moves to your uterus, where the uterine lining has thickened in response to the normal hormones of your menstrual cycle (also called your reproductive cycle). Once in your uterus, the fertilized egg can implant into the thickened uterine lining and continue to develop. If implantation doesn’t take place, the uterine lining is shed as your menstrual period. In addition, the female reproductive system produces sex hormones that maintain your menstrual cycle.

During menopause, the female reproductive system gradually stops making the female hormones necessary for the menstrual cycle to work. At this point, menstrual cycles can become irregular and eventually stop. You’re considered to be menopausal when you’ve gone an entire year without a menstrual period.

Menstrual cycle

Menstrual cycle

Women or people AFAB of reproductive age (beginning anywhere from 11 to 16 years of age) experience cycles of hormonal activity that repeat at about one-month intervals. With every cycle, your body prepares for a potential pregnancy, whether or not that’s your intention. The term menstruation refers to the periodic shedding of your uterine lining when pregnancy doesn’t occur that cycle. Many people call the days that they notice vaginal bleeding their “period.”

The average menstrual cycle takes about 28 days and occurs in phases. These phases include:

The follicular phase (the egg develops).

The ovulatory phase (release of the egg).

The luteal phase (hormone levels decrease if the egg doesn’t implant).

There are four major hormones (chemicals that stimulate or regulate the activity of cells or organs) involved in the menstrual cycle. These hormones include:

Follicle-stimulating hormone.

Luteinizing hormone.

Estrogen.

Progesterone.

Follicular phase

This phase starts on the first day of your period. During the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle, the following events occur:

Two hormones, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) are released from your brain and travel in your blood to your ovaries.

The hormones stimulate the growth of about 15 to 20 eggs in your ovaries, each in its own “shell,” called a follicle.

These hormones (FSH and LH) also trigger an increase in the production of the hormone estrogen.

As estrogen levels rise, like a switch, it turns off the production of follicle-stimulating hormone. This careful balance of hormones allows the body to limit the number of follicles that will prepare eggs to be released.

As the follicular phase progresses, one follicle in one ovary becomes dominant and continues to mature. This dominant follicle suppresses all of the other follicles in the group. As a result, they stop growing and die. The dominant follicle continues to produce estrogen.

Ovulatory phase

The ovulatory phase (ovulation) usually starts about 14 days after the follicular phase started (the exact timing varies). The ovulatory phase is the second phase of your menstrual cycle. Most people will have a menstrual period 10 to 16 days after ovulation. During this phase, the following events occur:

The rise in estrogen from the dominant follicle triggers a surge in the amount of luteinizing hormone (LH) that your brain produces.

This causes the dominant follicle to release its egg from the ovary.

As the egg is released (a process called ovulation) it’s captured by finger-like projections on the end of the fallopian tubes (fimbriae). The fimbriae sweep the egg into the fallopian tube.

For one to five days prior to ovulation, many women or people AFAB will notice an increase in egg white cervical mucus. This mucus is the vaginal discharge that helps to capture and nourish a sperm on its way to meet the egg for fertilization.

Luteal phase

The luteal phase begins right after ovulation and involves the following processes:

Once it releases its egg, the empty ovarian follicle develops into a new structure called the corpus luteum.

The corpus luteum secretes the hormones estrogen and progesterone. Progesterone prepares your uterus for a fertilized egg to implant.

If intercourse has taken place and sperm has fertilized the egg (conception), the fertilized egg (embryo) will travel through your fallopian tube to implant in your uterus. This is how pregnancy begins.

If the egg isn’t fertilized, it dissolves in your uterus. Not needed to support a pregnancy, the lining of your uterus breaks down and sheds. This is when your period begins.

Eggs

You’re born with all the eggs you’ll ever produce. During fetal development, you have about 6 million eggs. At birth, there are approximately 1 million eggs left. By the time you reach puberty, only about 300,000 remain. The number of eggs you have continues to decline as you age and menstruate each cycle. Fertility also declines with age due to the decreasing number and quality of your remaining eggs.

Reproduction

In humans, female and male reproductive systems work together to reproduce. There are two kinds of sex cells — sperm and eggs. When a sperm meets an egg, it can fertilize it and create a zygote. This zygote eventually becomes a fetus. Both a sperm and an egg are needed for human reproduction.

Disease 

Endometriosis

Endometriosis is a problem affecting a woman’s uterus—the place where a baby grows when a woman is pregnant. Endometriosis is when the kind of tissue that normally lines the uterus grows somewhere else. It can grow on the ovaries, behind the uterus, on the bowels, or on the bladder. Rarely, it grows in other parts of the body.

This “misplaced” tissue can cause pain, infertility, and very heavy periods. The pain is usually in the abdomen, lower back, or pelvic areas. Some women have no symptoms at all, and having trouble getting pregnant may be the first sign they have endometriosis.

Uterine Fibroids

Uterine fibroids are the most common noncancerous tumors in women of childbearing age. Fibroids are made of muscle cells and other tissues that grow in and around the wall of the uterus, or womb. The cause of fibroids is unknown. Risk factors include being African-American or being overweight. The symptoms of fibroids include

Heavy or painful periods or bleeding between periods.

Feeling “full” in the lower abdomen.

Urinating often.

Pain during sex.

Lower back pain.

Reproductive problems, such as infertility, multiple miscarriages, or early labor.

But some women will have no symptoms. That is why it is important to see your health care provider for routine exams.

Gynecologic Cancers

CDC provides information and educational materials for women and health care providers to raise awareness about the five main gynecologic cancers. Gynecologic cancer is any cancer that starts in a woman’s reproductive organs. Gynecologic cancers begin in different places within a woman’s pelvis, which is the area below the stomach and in between the hip bones.

Cervical cancer begins in the cervix, which is the lower, narrow end of the uterus.

Ovarian cancer begins in the ovaries, which are located on each side of the uterus.

Uterine cancer begins in the uterus, the pear-shaped organ in a woman’s pelvis where the baby grows when a woman is pregnant.

Vaginal cancer begins in the vagina, which is the hollow, tube-like channel between the bottom of the uterus and the outside of the body.

Vulvar cancer begins in the vulva, the outer part of the female genital organs.

HIV

HIV is the human immunodeficiency virus. HIV affects specific cells of the immune system (called CD4 cells). Over time, HIV can destroy so many of these cells that the body can’t fight off infection anymore. The human body cannot get rid of HIV—that means once a person has HIV, he or she has it for life. There is no cure at this time, but with proper medical care, the virus can be controlled. HIV is the virus that can lead to acquired immune deficiency syndrome, or AIDS. AIDS is the late stage of HIV infection, when a person’s immune system is severely damaged.

HIV in Women

Women who are infected with HIV typically get it by having sex with a man who is infected or by sharing needles with an infected person. Women of minority races/ethnicities are especially affected, and black or African American women are the most affected group.

Pregnant Women

All pregnant women should know their HIV status. Pregnant women who are HIV-positive can work with their health care providers to ensure their babies do not contract HIV during pregnancy, delivery, or after delivery (through breast milk). It is possible for a mother to have HIV and not spread it to her baby, especially if she knows about her HIV status early and works with her health care provider to reduce the risk.

Learn more from CDC’s Act Against AIDS campaign including how HIV is spread, and how to prevent HIV.

Interstitial cystitis

Interstitial cystitis (IC) is a chronic bladder condition resulting in recurring discomfort or pain in the bladder or surrounding pelvic region. People with IC usually have inflamed or irritated bladder walls that can cause scarring and stiffening of the bladder. IC can affect anyone; however, it is more common in women than men. Some people have some or none of the following symptoms:

Abdominal or pelvic mild discomfort.

Frequent urination.

A feeling of urgency to urinate.

Feeling of abdominal or pelvic pressure.

Tenderness.

Intense pain in the bladder or pelvic region.

Severe lower abdominal pain that intensifies as the urinary bladder fills or empties.

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome PCOS

Polycystic ovary syndrome happens when a woman’s ovaries or adrenal glands produce more male hormones than normal. One result is that cysts (fluid-filled sacs) develop on the ovaries. Women who are obese are more likely to have PCOS. Women with PCOS are at increased risk of developing diabetes and heart disease. Symptoms may include

Infertility.

Pelvic pain.

Excess hair growth on the face, chest, stomach, thumbs, or toes.

Baldness or thinning hair.

Acne, oily skin, or dandruff.

Patches of thickened dark brown or black skin.

STDs

STDs are infections that you can get from having sex with someone who has the infection. The causes of STDs are bacteria, parasites, and viruses. There are more than 20 types of STDs. Read more about specific STDs from these CDC fact sheets.

Most STDs affect both men and women, but in many cases the health problems they cause can be more severe for women. If a pregnant woman has an STD, it can cause serious health problems for the baby.

If you have an STD caused by bacteria or parasites, your health care provider can treat it with antibiotics or other medicines. If you have an STD caused by a virus, there is no cure, but antiviral medication can help control symptoms. Sometimes medicines can keep the disease under control. Correct usage of latex condoms greatly reduces, but does not completely eliminate, the risk of catching or spreading STDs.

Human - Male Reproductive System

Human - Male Reproductive System 

Introduction

The male reproductive system mostly exists outside of your body. The external organs include the penis, scrotum and testicles. Internal organs include the vas deferens, prostate and urethra. The male reproductive system is responsible for sexual function and urination.

The male reproductive system includes a group of organs that make up the reproductive system and urinary system in men and people Assigned Male at Birth (AMAB).

The male reproductive system contains internal and external parts. Internal parts are inside your body, and external parts are outside your body. Together, these organs help you urinate (pee), have sexual intercourse and make biological children.

Anatomy

External Parts

Most of the male reproductive system is on the outside of your abdominal cavity or pelvis. The external body parts of the male reproductive system include the penis, scrotum and testicles. Another name for these parts is genitals or genitalia.

Penis

The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse. It contains many sensitive nerve endings, and it has three parts:

Root. The root is the base of your penis. It attaches to the wall of your abdomen.

Body (shaft). The body has a shape like a tube or cylinder. It consists of three internal chambers: the two larger chambers are the corpora cavernosa, and the third chamber is the corpus spongiosum. The corpora cavernosa run side by side, while the corpus spongiosum surrounds your urethra. There’s a special, sponge-like erectile tissue inside these chambers. The erectile tissue contains thousands of spaces. During sexual arousal, the spaces fill with blood, and your penis becomes hard and rigid (erection). An erection allows you to have penetrative sex. The skin of the penis is loose and stretchy, which lets it change size when you have an erection.

Glans (head). The glans is the cone-shaped tip of the penis. A loose layer of skin (foreskin) covers the glans. Healthcare providers sometimes surgically remove the foreskin (circumcision).

In most people, the opening of the urethra is at the tip of the glans. The urethra transports pee and semen out of your body. Semen contains sperm. You expel (ejaculate) semen through the end of your penis when you reach sexual climax (orgasm).

When your penis is erect, your corpora cavernosa press against the part of your urethra where pee flows. This blocks your pee flow so that only semen ejaculates when you orgasm.

Normal size of the penis

Studies suggest that the average penis is about 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) when flaccid (soft) and a little more than 5 inches (13 cm) when erect.

Scrotum

The scrotum is the loose, pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind the penis. It holds the testicles (testes) as well as nerves and blood vessels.

The scrotum protects your testicles and provides a sort of “climate-control system.” For normal sperm development, the testes must be at a temperature that’s slightly cooler than body temperature (between 97 and 99 degrees Fahrenheit or 36 and 37 degrees Celsius). Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum let it contract (tighten) and relax. Your scrotum contracts to move your testicles closer to your body for warmth and protection. It relaxes away from your body to cool them.

Testicles

The testicles (testes) are oval-shaped organs that lie in your scrotum. They’re about the size of two large olives. The spermatic cord holds the testicles in place and supplies them with blood. Most people AMAB have two testicles, on the left and right side of the scrotum. The testicles make testosterone and produce sperm. Within the testicles are coiled masses of tubes. These are the seminiferous tubules. The seminiferous tubules produce sperm cells through spermatogenesis.

Epididymis

The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on the back of each testicle. It carries and stores the sperm cells that your testicles create. The epididymis also brings the sperm to maturity — the sperm that emerge from the testicles are immature and incapable of fertilization. During sexual arousal, muscle contractions force the sperm into the vas deferens.

Internal parts

There are several internal (accessory) organs in the male reproductive system. They include:

Vas deferens

The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis into the pelvic cavity, just behind the urinary bladder. The vas deferens transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation.

Ejaculatory ducts

Each testicle has a vas deferens that joins with seminal vesicle ducts to form ejaculatory ducts. The ejaculatory ducts move through your prostate, where they collect fluid to add to semen. They empty into your urethra.

Urethra

The urethra is the tube that carries pee from your bladder outside of your body. If you have a penis, it also ejaculates semen when you reach orgasm.

Seminal vesicles

The seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens near the base of the bladder. Seminal vesicles make up to 80% of your ejaculatory fluid, including fructose. Fructose is an energy source for sperm and helps them move (motility).

Prostate gland

The prostate is a walnut-sized gland that rests below your bladder, in front of your rectum. The prostate adds additional fluid to ejaculate, which helps nourish sperm. The urethra runs through the center of the prostate gland.

Bulbourethral (Cowper) glands

The bulbourethral glands are pea-sized structures on the sides of your urethra, just below your prostate. They create a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. This fluid lubricates the urethra and neutralizes any acids that may remain from your pee.

Function

The organs that make up the male reproductive system perform the following:

Produce, maintain and transport sperm cells and semen. Sperm cells are male reproductive cells. Semen is the protective fluid around sperm.

Discharge sperm.

Produce and secrete male sex hormones.

The entire male reproductive system depends on hormones. Hormones are chemicals that stimulate or regulate activity in your cells or organs. The primary hormones that help the male reproductive system function include:

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Your pituitary gland makes FSH. FSH is necessary to produce sperm (spermatogenesis).

Luteinizing hormone (LH). Your pituitary gland also makes LH. LH is necessary to continue the process of spermatogenesis.

Testosterone. Testosterone is the main sex hormone in people AMAB. It helps you develop certain characteristics, including muscle mass and strength, fat distribution, bone mass and sex drive (libido).

Conditions and Disorders

Common conditions that affect the male reproductive system include:

Testicular cancer.

Penile cancer.

Prostate cancer.

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs).

Premature ejaculation.

Male infertility.

Erectile dysfunction.

Priapism.

Common signs of conditions that affect the male reproductive system include:

Lumps or sores on your external reproductive parts.

Pain or swelling.

Aching or discomfort around your groin or lower abdomen.

Blood in your semen (hematospermia).

Blood in your pee (hematuria).

Pain or burning when you pee (dysuria).

Loss of bladder control (urinary incontinence).

Inability to get and maintain an erection hard enough for sexual intercourse.

Care

Practice safe sex. Use condoms to help protect yourself against STIs.

Perform self-examinations. Regularly examine your penis, scrotum and testicles for any changes.

Get the human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccine. This vaccine helps protect you from HPV, which can cause penile cancer and genital warts.

Consider circumcision. A circumcision reduces your risk of penile cancer.

Don’t use tobacco products. Tobacco products increase your risk of developing cancers. If you smoke, ask a healthcare provider for tips to help quit smoking.

Practice good hygiene. It’s a good idea to regularly clean your penis, scrotum and the surrounding areas with soap and warm water to help kill germs that cause infections. If you still have your foreskin, be sure to pull back your foreskin, clean the head of your penis and thoroughly dry the area.

Get regular prostate exams. Prostate exams look for early signs of prostate cancer. You should get your first prostate exam by age 50. However, if you have a biological family history of prostate cancer, it’s a good idea to get your first prostate exam by 45.

Maintain a weight that’s healthy for you. Ask your provider what a healthy weight means for you.

Educate yourself about STIs. Learn about the signs and symptoms of STIs. The more you know, the better you can protect yourself and your partner(s).